Least Appealing Teaching Methods

So far this week, throughout our discussions together, the members of our class have pointed out and discussed reasons they dislike the Grammar-Translation Method and the Audio-Lingual Approach in particular.

Since we certainly don't want the guy in this image to be the result of our grammar lesson, a reflective discussion of these methods and why they are disliked is warranted.

Grammar-Translation:
Some of my colleagues and I wrote about the grammar-translation method and how it lacks an attention to the development of language skills for the purpose of authentic communication.  The method focuses on reading and some writing, but mainly neglects speaking and listening.

Several of the discussion participants brought up excellent points that this method is well-known in the world of language learning and teaching and may be THE expectation for learners about how they will be learning language.  They may think other approaches are incorrect or will not properly prepare them for the use of the language.  Of course, we should always take a learner's background and preferred learning styles into consideration when planning our lessons, in order to meet their needs and wants.

Audio-Lingual:
My colleagues expressed several reasons for their dislike of the audio-lingual approach.  Restrictions on students, level of teacher control, and the use of boring, repetitive drills were main reasons mentioned.

However, as was in the case of the grammar-translation method, some participants shared positive results they themselves experienced or results they observed from other learners.  The use of songs, rhymes, and chants played a particular role in this success.

It is probably not wise to label an approach or method as entirely lacking value for learners.  It seems that each approach has some benefit to contribute in some situation for some learner.  It is essential, then, that we adequately assess and endeavor to know learners' needs and preferred learning styles.  The results will help guide us as we plan successful, engaging lessons for our learners. That means we will probably be using the Grammar-Translation and Audio-Lingual approaches in one way or another in our classrooms - no matter how much we may dislike them.  The key is for us to know each one well, focus on the benefits of each and use them when appropriate. As was written in our reading, the key is to 'adapt, not adopt'.

Get grammar lessons 'flow'ing...

As a reminder, there are 9 elements that contribute to flow (read more about flow here):

1. clear goals every step of the way
2. immediate feedback for one's actions
3. balance between challenges and skills
4. action and awareness are merged
5. distractions are excluded from consciousness
6. no worry of failure
7. self-consciousness disappears
8. sense of time becomes distorted
9. activity becomes 'autotelic' (an end in itself)

How can we write lesson plans that apply these principles?  

When we use clear goals in our lesson plans, they help us create a focused, concentrated sequence of activities that will start from the assessed learner's needs and gradually build on their skills and knowledge to ensure that new content is learned one concept at a time with increasing levels of independence. This makes it possible for learners to gain confidence with new material in an environment that balances skill with challenge in such a way as to produce the feeling of flow, which will be discussed in a following point.

What does this look like in practice?  Goals will be specific and focused.  They will be few.  Activities in the lesson will be gradually building confidence.  First, the topic will be presented, learners will practice first in a 'safer' environment among peers with activities that involve group or peer work.  Learners at this point will correct themselves or others.  By doing so, adequate feedback is given, learners are less self-conscious and they are interacting and using the language, so they are aware.  Then, learners may practice independently with yet a more advanced activity that will increase the level of challenge since skill and knowledge have also increased.  

In fact, is essential that challenge and skill are well balanced if we want to achieve a sense of flow.  If activities planned in our lessons are too easy or have already been mastered by our learners, they will either be too relaxed, bored, or basically indifferent.  At the same time, if we have planned lessons that are too difficult, disregard gaps in learner skills and / or knowledge, or require learners to independently perform activities they are not yet prepared to perform in a small group or pair, we have misjudged our learners' readiness.  In this case, learners may feel frustrated, anxious, or worried.  

Whether it is indifference or anxiety, such feelings will not contribute to learning and will not result in flow.  Lessons with a good balance of challenge and skill do not throw learners into the sea without first teaching them to swim - or at least giving them a life jacket.  Rather, learners are well prepared for the challenges presented to them throughout the lesson (by the teaching of specific skills and knowledge necessary to effectively achieve the goal of the lesson).  Because he or she has mastered the required tools for the challenge, the learner does not fear it and will apply themselves and the newly acquired tools (skills and knowledge) to the challenge with joy.

A good balance of challenge and skill also keeps learners involved and on task.  As Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi describes in his video about flow, the brain can handle only so much stimulation at a time.  Thus, when learners are adequately challenged and have the right skills required by the activity, they will be busy, focused on the application of their skills, their awareness will be heightened and the activity will become autotelic or an 'end to itself'. 

What does this look like in practice?  It appears as a progression from perception (through presentation) to recognition and comprehension (through focused practice) to use (independent free use).  Activities will be planned in such a way as to reflect this progression, moving gradually from one stage to another, providing adequate feedback and confidence along the way.

If we want our learners to be 'in a state of flow' as they are learning language, it is essential that we apply these techniques to our lesson planning.      

The Role of Assessment

Assessment is an essential tool without which educators could not adequately, effectively or efficiently meet learners' needs and wants.  

Why assess?

Performing assessments will help educators determine learner placement, develop materials, curriculum, and teaching approaches. It also provides important information about what learners bring to the course, what they already have accomplished and what they want or need to know next.

When to assess?

Assessment is most useful when it occurs before, during and after courses. Having done so gives educators a baseline from which to start, an opportunity to check progress midway and change course if needed, and evaluate end results.

Who benefits from assessment?

First and foremost - the learner reaps the benefits. When educators have a good idea of what the learner has learned, wants or needs to learn and how he or she prefers to learn it, the most effective learning setting is prepared. Others also benefit from assessment including educational authorities, program funders and employers.

What information is included in an assessment?

6 main types of information may be included in assessments. Personal information, language-related information, learning-related information, teaching-related information, goal-oriented information, and miscellaneous information.  


When educators include comprehensive assessments before, during and after their courses, they are better equipped to provide learners opportunities to achieve. Educators can use the information from the assessments to drive the development of materials, to guide the direction of the curriculum, and to inform approaches used. Rather than using the same material over and over again with different learners who have different needs, wants, and objectives from the learning, educators who use assessment results effectively can ensure a "flexible, responsive curriculum."


As our the author of our text so poetically put it,
"If we know what's of interest to our students, we can package the desired with the required, and can provide a more effective and dynamic learning environment for everyone."

What is competence?

When it comes to language, what is competence?  Can we define it as skill or ability - demonstrable through performance?  But what are the components of this language competence?   If it changes over time, why?  What's the difference between competence and proficiency?

Before I read the article including a history and research overview of the definition of "competence",  here is what I wrote in my notebook as a definition of competence:

"the ability to communicate clearly and meaningfully about relevant, important topics with others who are native speakers"

As we read through the article, Defining Communicative Competence, we learned there are 3 main models of communicative competence created by theorists and developed through research.

1.   Canale and Swain (1980, 1981) and then Canale (1983, 1984):

• 3 main types of skills: 
• grammatical (grasp of language rules, forms and structures)
• sociolinguistic (the right use of the right language in the right place at the right time with the right cultural considerations)
• strategic (verbal and nonverbal tactics used when a breakdown in communication happens as a result of an underdeveloped area of competence)
• later Canale (1983, 1984) added discourse (putting the right words or texts together in the right way to make meaningful utterances)

2.  Bachman and Palmer (1996)

• Crucial ability is language ability, but strategic knowledge also plays a role
• Language ability is made up of two main elements:
• organizational knowledge (mostly formal language structures)
• pragmatic knowledge (mostly production and understanding of communication)
• These elements complement each other and also have subcomponents as is clear below in the figure.

3.  Common European Framework (CEF)

• 3 basic components, each including both knowledge and ability to apply (strategic competence, is not separate on its own): 
• language competence: (knowledge of and ability to form required structures)
• sociolinguistic competence: (knowledge of and correct use of language skills in social context) 
• pragmatic: discourse and function

These three sets of theories, and the differences therein, are illustrated below in the figure.

Reading the history and research review certainly added to my understanding of the concept.  I especially enjoyed the visual images that represent the various theorists' opinions.  Their points of view and theories about language learning inspired many more questions, too.  Reflection on the philosophy behind the nature of language learning certainly opens our understanding to new ideas, new questions, and possible new interpretations of old world views.  After having read the article, I believe it is worthwhile to do much more investigation and study about the nature of language learning. At the same time, it will be essential to keep up with new theories or contributions.

So, perhaps I could rephrase my first definition of competence to read:    

"a dynamic set of knowledge, skills, and behaviors resulting in clear, meaningful communication, including language, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence"

I really don't like grammar!

What do you remember about grammar instruction?  How did the teacher present, explore or share the rules and patterns of the new language with the students? What was effective? What was ineffective? What do you remember enjoying? What was more challenging and perhaps less enjoyable?

As a student learning the grammar of my native language (English), the most significant memory I have is that of diagramming sentences.  This activity was visual representation of the language system.  We used flat, horizontal lines for the basic parts of the sentence (subject and verb) and then other lines at angles below or to the side in order to clarify how each of the other words functioned in the sentence (as modifiers, etc.).  I suppose that my predilection towards visual learning made this approach to grammar useful and meaningful for me.  On the other hand, I really disliked taking a rule and applying it to a set of twenty sentences (drilling).  I sometimes took this as an insult to my intelligence. 

As a student learning the grammar of another language (Arabic), however, my perspective changed a bit.  I first began learning Arabic on my own, through observation and trial and error.  I only started studying with a private tutor after about 3 years in Egypt.  Because I already had a significant amount of basic Arabic under my belt, we began with some simple grammar rules and patterns.  Most of the time, my instructor would present a grammar rule or pattern through explanation in the target language (Arabic) and then reinforce it using some examples in the target language.  We would do some exercises using that rule, including those dreaded drilling sets.  In this case, notably, I found that practicing the rule in a controlled, safe environment that was not high-stakes (my workplace) was very useful and gave me the chance to make mistakes without consequences.  The instructor also would present some text (comprehension passages) in which these rules were also observable.  Thus, she put the rule into a context, and added meaning.  This was especially useful for me.

A student in your class approaches you and tells you she is very bored with the grammar lessons, and that she feels she can learn English without learning grammar separately. What would you tell her?

Write a script of the explanation you could give this student and post it to your blog. Read the other scripts and consider which explanations might be the most meaningful, comprehensible, and authentic to a student learning English.  Also, write about what you might do differently in your instruction as a result of the conversation.

Sandra: Ms. Jennifer, I really don't like grammar.  Do we have to learn it?

Ms. Jennifer: Well, Sandra, why do you think we include grammar in our English course?

Sandra:  Because it helps us speak and write better.  But, I think if I read more and talk to more speakers of English, my grammar will get better.

Ms. Jennifer:  You're right, Sandra.  Reading more and spending more time communicating will definitely expose you to more language and give you a chance to use your language in many ways.  I know you are sharp, Sandra.  You easily pick up on language patterns, sometimes without any direct instruction.  But, what if I told you that sometimes, we need help to notice these patterns?  

Sandra:  Yes, sometimes I feel like something I'm saying doesn't sound right, but I don't know why.

Ms. Jennifer:  That's right - you have a keen sensitivity for languages, like many students do.  But, sometimes if a rule or a specific structure is explained to you directly, that knowledge will help you figure out the pattern and use it with fluency and accuracy faster than if you try to understand it by yourself. 

Sandra:  But, most of the time, even if I make mistakes, people can understand what I mean. 

Ms.  Jennifer:  Maybe that's true, now, Sandra.  But, as you develop your language, you may want to discuss more complex topics, you may want to apply to study formally in a university, or you may want to get a job.  In these situations, you don't want to take a chance that people will misunderstand you, right?  And sometimes, people are not fair.  They may think that you don't understand the content or the facts because you can't communicate clearly about them.  They may judge you based on their own ability to understand you.  That's why it's important to use every tool you have to be as fluent and accurate as possible.

Sandra: But sometimes I feel overwhelmed and think I will never be able to sound or write like a native speaker.

Ms. Jennifer:  Well, Sandra, learning another language is a life-long process for most people.  Let's focus on today.  Let's figure out where you are in your language learning process, what specific goals we can focus on, and find the strategies for work that you most enjoy.  In that way, we can meet your goal of being as fluent and accurate as possible.

Sandra:  Okay, Ms. Jennifer.  I agree that grammar is important so I can communicate clearly.  But, let's try to do less mindless drilling, please! 

Ms. Jennifer: (smiling)  Of course, Sandra!  We will work together to find ways to practice grammar that you enjoy.  

As a result of this conversation, I would spend more time creating activities that not only practice specific patterns and structures in particular, but also within a more comprehensive format that involves      relevant, meaningful, context to the language with some elements of games or competition that would motivate Sandra and her colleagues.

Discovering the CLB

Now that you have had an opportunity to peruse the CLBs, what is your beginning understanding of how this tool could be practically applied in a language learning classroom environment? As an instructor, how could you utilize it in a way that "makes sense?" Further, how could it be presented and made useful to students?  

The Canadian language benchmarks (CLBs) provide a set of standards for language learning that is comprehensive and detailed.  The benchmarks create a common foundation for educators upon which they can build their communication, their assessment, and their materials.  Because they are learner-centered, task-based, applicable to community, academic and work contexts, as well as competency-based, they are highly useful for both practitioners and learners.  

As an instructor, it seems important to remember that the benchmarks are not meant to be a test, a curriculum or a syllabus.  They also do not represent public policy on education, however, they may be affected by such policy.  What do they do?  They form a framework.  They help educators understand each other when they communicate about learners' language levels, expectations for language performance through language tasks, and provide detailed descriptions of strategies for development across the four levels of each of the three stages of language learning.  

As a language learner, I imagine it would be motivating to know exactly what skills I have, what skills I am developing and what skills lie ahead of me to be developed, especially when those skills are described in a task-based way.  I will be able to have a good understanding of where I am and what kinds of things I should be able to accomplish now and in the near future.  I would be able to help myself reach those goals in a more intentional way.  Of course, when presenting the benchmarks to students, it may be counterproductive to overwhelm them with long lists of tasks that are far beyond their level.  The can-do lists are succinct, simple, straight-forward visions of a learner's skills at particular levels and seem to be an ideal way to use the benchmarks with students.  

A Summarized History of Language Learning Theory

Knowing the history of how ideas, perspectives, and practices develop gives us power.  It provides an understanding with which we can better discern whether or not certain concepts, behaviors or practices match our value system and are worthy of our support and adherence.

Module 2 in our Thinking About Theory course includes a PowerPoint presentation that gives a broad summary of the significant phases of the history of teaching and learning languages. Below I reflect on the high points of language teaching and learning history through some questions.


1. How would you summarize the changes in language teaching and learning over the centuries? 
On one level the changes that have happened in language teaching and learning theories, approaches, methodologies and even techniques seem to be on a pendulum, first swinging one direction, then another.  And, in a sense, it's true.  Many of the perspectives about language teaching and learning were developed in reaction to a previous perspective, adding an aspect that seemed to missing, or proposing a completely opposite point of view.  For example, the Direct Method (an approach focusing on use, not analysis of structure) developed in response to the Grammar-Translation Approach, which was entirely focused on a systematic study of language forms.

On the other hand, as each new approach and its related methods were created, implemented, and evaluated, theorists themselves were learning.  When language learning started to be a significant field of study, research contributed noteworthy contributions and new questions were considered.  As time went by, there was still an ebb and flow of the pendulum, but it seemed to be a bit less extreme.  Other factors were considered in the learning of language including culture and social interactions and affect.  New technologies developed and new materials were created as learners started to learn in new situations.  Social changes brought new developments like bilingual schooling, individualized instruction and immersion strategies.   It seems to me, that, whereas some approaches remained closed off to any of the newer information and change, other approaches, like the communicative approach that is most popular now, developed into an eclectic, varied type of approach that would offer a balance of theory within one approach.    


2. What kinds of factors affected the development of language learning theories over time?
Some of the main factors that had significant impact on the theory of language learning over time are reflected in the way in which educators answer 3 main questions about language learning:

• What is the nature of learning?
• What is the nature of language learning?
• What is the nature of teaching?

Answers to these questions make up the core of why one approach may be different from another.  For example, the Situational Language Teaching approach has the perspective that learning happens in a natural way, in context.  Language learning in particular would be best learned within particular, realistic situations.  Teaching in such an approach would involve helping the learner experience these situations using realia, demonstation, practice, and humorous situations.  Grammar may be taught in this case through the use of substitution practice which involves learning producing a number of sentences matching a pattern they have learned.

On the other hand, the Grammar-Translation Method considers language learning to be a tool for scholarship.  Proponents of this method also hold that writing is the most important skill of a language and that this can be learned mostly through the memorization of specific rules and lists of vocabulary.  Translation is one prominent way that language is taught using this method and the teacher's role is to explain rules and meanings, organize practice, and correct mistakes.  It stands in stark contrast to the Situational Language Teaching approach and others like it.

Besides the basic answers to these three questions, other factors, besides difference in perspectives or world views, have had impact on the theories of language learning.  The development of new technologies has made it possible for the use of various media in the language classroom and the internet and pushed the limits even further, redefining what is a 'classroom'.  We have also seen the rise of alternatives to conventional schools that have developed as a reaction to the nature of the prominence of English language, and/or the will to maintain and develop first languages while living in cultures where another language is dominant.  These include bilingual schooling, individualized instruction and immersion courses.

3. Describe five approaches that have been used to teach languages over the centuries. You do not need to name methods, just general approaches.

Approach Name	view of language	view of language learning	view of roles of teacher	view of roles of learner	examples of teaching-learning activities
Grammar - Translation	*academic *used for scholarship *systems of rules	*main goal is to enable learners to read and comprehend the target language for use in academics	*uses the native language primarily *explains grammatical forms and structures *drills *corrects mistakes *does not necessarily have to speak the target language	*listens *practices through assigned exercises *memorizes rules and lists	*reading difficult texts *translation of texts from target language to native language or vice-versa
Direct	*is meant for communication	*should be carried out entirely in the target language (in fact, teachers may not even know the learner’s native language) *should be learned in a way that reflects the way first languages are learned	*must be native speaker or have native-like proficiency *corrects *demonstrates *organizes practice	*participates actively *imitates	*showing *drawing *asking questions *answering questions
Audiolingual	*system of communication	*learned through hearing and imitating	*teaches grammar in a sequence *teaches grammar inductively *sequences the teaching into first listening, then speaking, then reading, then writing *limits vocabulary appropriately *prevents learner errors *corrects learners	*repeats *memorizes	*dialogues *pronunciation activities are stressed *substitution drilling
Oral-Situational	*spoken language is primary *language is a system of communication	*language is best understood within a context	*presents language orally and in context *uses only target language *uses practice exercises within a specific, realistic situation	*complete practice exercises	*use of sentence patterns in substitution practice *speaking exercises primarily, but may use reading and writing as supports
Communicative	*language is a system of communication including both specific forms and social purposes	*main goal is to enable learners to communicate in the target language *long process	*plans integrated activities that function to increase communication *corrects errors as a secondary role *must be fluent in target language *exerts less control over what language to which learners are exposed, giving learners more control	*communicates *participates *engages in real-life activities *participates in guiding / directing the learning	*linguistic structures and social functions are practiced through integrated, contextual situations *role-plays, events, and communications that are authentic and require engagement in the target language

4. What is the current approach to language learning and teaching? What are some characteristics of the current approach?
The most current approach is the communicative approach. I have written about it here, but here is a short summary:
What CLT is not:
*just about oral communication
*limited to group or pair work
*incompatible with knowledge about rules or specific language forms

What CLT is:
*a comprehensive approach including the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning in the spoken and written word
*may include both group/ pair work and individual work
*inclusive of metalinguistic knowledge
*full of activity, tasks, and discovery
*functional
*tailored to learner's needs and contexts
*an interrelated set of competences that include language structure (grammatical competence), meaning in context (discourse competence), coping strategies that enable communication despite limitations (strategic competence), and meaning making while taking into consideration cultural conventions and potential differences (sociocultural competence)

5. Can you think of examples of languages being taught for “specific purposes"?
Sometimes, learners have specific needs.  Once a needs assessment is completed, it may be most beneficial for learners to have particular programs designed to meet their needs.  I have experienced something like this in my own work.  While in Egypt, the language school at which I taught intended to  provide an immersion experience for its learners in which even some of the activity courses taught would be taught in the English language.  Since I was responsible for the music department, it was decided that our music teachers would teach in English and use English language songs as their main content.  Because the music teachers had only a basic level of English, they required some help with the language used in the songs, as well as the language used to describe musical terminology used in the courses.  Of course, this differed depending on the level the teacher was teaching and required that each teacher would have a special program developed for her needs.


6. Which methods appeal most to you, and why?
I am especially attracted to the learner-centered and task-based learning developments that have been surging for some time now.  While they may not qualify as 'methods' on their own, they could be considered aspects of the communicative approach.
These two particular 'methods' appeal to me because I believe that the more the learners are involved in their own learning, the more they will reap its benefits.  By being actively involved in the planning and implementation of specific activities or directions for the learning, I believe teachers using learner-centered techniques are more likely to encourage their learners to be life-long learners.  Furthermore, when learners are involved in specific, well-defined tasks that are relevant and meaningful, they will also achieve a deep, enriching experience that will result in a love of learning.

7. Provide examples of the older approaches to language teaching that you might use in your own classroom. Explain how they might be useful.
Professionals in marketing know that repetition is important.  They have thousands of strategies to make sure their brand appears in your conscious or subconscious enough so that you may decide to purchase their product.
I believe there is a necessity in repetition of information in order to have fully understood it and deeply processed it.  Whether it is reading several articles on a similar issue, or reading, discussing, then reflecting through an essay, I, myself as a student, use repetition as I direct my own learning.  It helps me see an issue or concept or technique from several viewpoints, analyze it and develop my own response.  I believe that this will be true for other learners, as well, for many fields of study.