A Summarized History of Language Learning Theory

Knowing the history of how ideas, perspectives, and practices develop gives us power.  It provides an understanding with which we can better discern whether or not certain concepts, behaviors or practices match our value system and are worthy of our support and adherence.

Module 2 in our Thinking About Theory course includes a PowerPoint presentation that gives a broad summary of the significant phases of the history of teaching and learning languages. Below I reflect on the high points of language teaching and learning history through some questions.


1. How would you summarize the changes in language teaching and learning over the centuries? 
On one level the changes that have happened in language teaching and learning theories, approaches, methodologies and even techniques seem to be on a pendulum, first swinging one direction, then another.  And, in a sense, it's true.  Many of the perspectives about language teaching and learning were developed in reaction to a previous perspective, adding an aspect that seemed to missing, or proposing a completely opposite point of view.  For example, the Direct Method (an approach focusing on use, not analysis of structure) developed in response to the Grammar-Translation Approach, which was entirely focused on a systematic study of language forms.

On the other hand, as each new approach and its related methods were created, implemented, and evaluated, theorists themselves were learning.  When language learning started to be a significant field of study, research contributed noteworthy contributions and new questions were considered.  As time went by, there was still an ebb and flow of the pendulum, but it seemed to be a bit less extreme.  Other factors were considered in the learning of language including culture and social interactions and affect.  New technologies developed and new materials were created as learners started to learn in new situations.  Social changes brought new developments like bilingual schooling, individualized instruction and immersion strategies.   It seems to me, that, whereas some approaches remained closed off to any of the newer information and change, other approaches, like the communicative approach that is most popular now, developed into an eclectic, varied type of approach that would offer a balance of theory within one approach.    


2. What kinds of factors affected the development of language learning theories over time?
Some of the main factors that had significant impact on the theory of language learning over time are reflected in the way in which educators answer 3 main questions about language learning:

• What is the nature of learning?
• What is the nature of language learning?
• What is the nature of teaching?

Answers to these questions make up the core of why one approach may be different from another.  For example, the Situational Language Teaching approach has the perspective that learning happens in a natural way, in context.  Language learning in particular would be best learned within particular, realistic situations.  Teaching in such an approach would involve helping the learner experience these situations using realia, demonstation, practice, and humorous situations.  Grammar may be taught in this case through the use of substitution practice which involves learning producing a number of sentences matching a pattern they have learned.

On the other hand, the Grammar-Translation Method considers language learning to be a tool for scholarship.  Proponents of this method also hold that writing is the most important skill of a language and that this can be learned mostly through the memorization of specific rules and lists of vocabulary.  Translation is one prominent way that language is taught using this method and the teacher's role is to explain rules and meanings, organize practice, and correct mistakes.  It stands in stark contrast to the Situational Language Teaching approach and others like it.

Besides the basic answers to these three questions, other factors, besides difference in perspectives or world views, have had impact on the theories of language learning.  The development of new technologies has made it possible for the use of various media in the language classroom and the internet and pushed the limits even further, redefining what is a 'classroom'.  We have also seen the rise of alternatives to conventional schools that have developed as a reaction to the nature of the prominence of English language, and/or the will to maintain and develop first languages while living in cultures where another language is dominant.  These include bilingual schooling, individualized instruction and immersion courses.

3. Describe five approaches that have been used to teach languages over the centuries. You do not need to name methods, just general approaches.

Approach Name	view of language	view of language learning	view of roles of teacher	view of roles of learner	examples of teaching-learning activities
Grammar - Translation	*academic *used for scholarship *systems of rules	*main goal is to enable learners to read and comprehend the target language for use in academics	*uses the native language primarily *explains grammatical forms and structures *drills *corrects mistakes *does not necessarily have to speak the target language	*listens *practices through assigned exercises *memorizes rules and lists	*reading difficult texts *translation of texts from target language to native language or vice-versa
Direct	*is meant for communication	*should be carried out entirely in the target language (in fact, teachers may not even know the learner’s native language) *should be learned in a way that reflects the way first languages are learned	*must be native speaker or have native-like proficiency *corrects *demonstrates *organizes practice	*participates actively *imitates	*showing *drawing *asking questions *answering questions
Audiolingual	*system of communication	*learned through hearing and imitating	*teaches grammar in a sequence *teaches grammar inductively *sequences the teaching into first listening, then speaking, then reading, then writing *limits vocabulary appropriately *prevents learner errors *corrects learners	*repeats *memorizes	*dialogues *pronunciation activities are stressed *substitution drilling
Oral-Situational	*spoken language is primary *language is a system of communication	*language is best understood within a context	*presents language orally and in context *uses only target language *uses practice exercises within a specific, realistic situation	*complete practice exercises	*use of sentence patterns in substitution practice *speaking exercises primarily, but may use reading and writing as supports
Communicative	*language is a system of communication including both specific forms and social purposes	*main goal is to enable learners to communicate in the target language *long process	*plans integrated activities that function to increase communication *corrects errors as a secondary role *must be fluent in target language *exerts less control over what language to which learners are exposed, giving learners more control	*communicates *participates *engages in real-life activities *participates in guiding / directing the learning	*linguistic structures and social functions are practiced through integrated, contextual situations *role-plays, events, and communications that are authentic and require engagement in the target language

4. What is the current approach to language learning and teaching? What are some characteristics of the current approach?
The most current approach is the communicative approach. I have written about it here, but here is a short summary:
What CLT is not:
*just about oral communication
*limited to group or pair work
*incompatible with knowledge about rules or specific language forms

What CLT is:
*a comprehensive approach including the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning in the spoken and written word
*may include both group/ pair work and individual work
*inclusive of metalinguistic knowledge
*full of activity, tasks, and discovery
*functional
*tailored to learner's needs and contexts
*an interrelated set of competences that include language structure (grammatical competence), meaning in context (discourse competence), coping strategies that enable communication despite limitations (strategic competence), and meaning making while taking into consideration cultural conventions and potential differences (sociocultural competence)

5. Can you think of examples of languages being taught for “specific purposes"?
Sometimes, learners have specific needs.  Once a needs assessment is completed, it may be most beneficial for learners to have particular programs designed to meet their needs.  I have experienced something like this in my own work.  While in Egypt, the language school at which I taught intended to  provide an immersion experience for its learners in which even some of the activity courses taught would be taught in the English language.  Since I was responsible for the music department, it was decided that our music teachers would teach in English and use English language songs as their main content.  Because the music teachers had only a basic level of English, they required some help with the language used in the songs, as well as the language used to describe musical terminology used in the courses.  Of course, this differed depending on the level the teacher was teaching and required that each teacher would have a special program developed for her needs.


6. Which methods appeal most to you, and why?
I am especially attracted to the learner-centered and task-based learning developments that have been surging for some time now.  While they may not qualify as 'methods' on their own, they could be considered aspects of the communicative approach.
These two particular 'methods' appeal to me because I believe that the more the learners are involved in their own learning, the more they will reap its benefits.  By being actively involved in the planning and implementation of specific activities or directions for the learning, I believe teachers using learner-centered techniques are more likely to encourage their learners to be life-long learners.  Furthermore, when learners are involved in specific, well-defined tasks that are relevant and meaningful, they will also achieve a deep, enriching experience that will result in a love of learning.

7. Provide examples of the older approaches to language teaching that you might use in your own classroom. Explain how they might be useful.
Professionals in marketing know that repetition is important.  They have thousands of strategies to make sure their brand appears in your conscious or subconscious enough so that you may decide to purchase their product.
I believe there is a necessity in repetition of information in order to have fully understood it and deeply processed it.  Whether it is reading several articles on a similar issue, or reading, discussing, then reflecting through an essay, I, myself as a student, use repetition as I direct my own learning.  It helps me see an issue or concept or technique from several viewpoints, analyze it and develop my own response.  I believe that this will be true for other learners, as well, for many fields of study.