Learning Objectives in Planning Instruction

Learning objectives draw a framework for expectations, provide a guide for action, and even a kind of tool for assessment of progress.

Expectations: Having considered learner's needs, wants, and the particular situation, a well-written objective clearly defines the expected outcomes for learners once they have completed a certain activity or lesson.   Because it is specific and measurable, it is a clear way of establishing what results learners can expect to achieve.

Guide for action:  At the same time, the objective also is achievable, relevant, and timely.  When teachers and / or learners create their learning objectives, they tailor their objective to be sure it can actually be accomplished, that it is applicable to the learners and the context, and that it can be done within the given time frame.  This tailoring ensures that the objective provides a path to success.  The teacher and learners then set out on the path, framed in the objective, keeping their eye on the objective and using it as a reference point.  Thus, the objective focuses the teacher and learner on what needs to be done by consistently reminding them of their goal.

Assessment of progress:  As the learners and teachers continue down the path, with their eye on the objective, they will constantly question how far along they are in the accomplishment of their goal.  If they find themselves off track for some reason, the objective becomes a way to regroup and move forward  in the right direction again.  It could be that the learners and / or teacher will realize that the original objective wasn't really achievable or timely and will require adjustment.  Or it could be that such a review of the objective will reveal that it has actually been achieved and it's time to write a new one!

Objectives, when written well, are essential in the planning, implementation and evaluation of instruction.

A Pause for Reflection

Now is the the perfect time to take a time-out and reflect.  We have just completed four modules of in-depth study of the four modalities of language (reading, writing, listening, and speaking).  During our exploration of each the modalities, we have been exposed to a significant amount of new information, ideas, and terminology.  A review at this point will most definitely be helpful as we synthesize and apply our new learning.

As we move forward through this course and the coming ones in this certificate program (and then into the classroom!), these four modules and the information they contain about the four language modalities will be a core from which we can work.  I thought I would take this reflection post to just touch on some highlights from each module:

Reading

We learned that there are 6 kinds of knowledge that can be used to make sense of text:

• syntactic knowledge
• morphological knowledge
• general world knowledge
• sociocultural knowledge
• topic knowledge
• genre knowledge

We also learned that it is important to help learners use schematic knowledge in pre-reading activities where they can make predictions.

Another thing we learned about reading was that specific language knowledge can be used during a reading activity to help learners decode the text.  This can include text cohesion, deletion, discourse signals, and vocabulary.

Finally, we learned how teachers can apply certain strategies to help learners decode different types of text.  They can assign extensive reading, choose text in such a way as to capitalize on learner's existing knowledge, and engage learners in analytical activities that draw attention to specific features of the text.

Writing

As for writing, we learned about the different stages of writing and the purposes of each.

• planning:  deciding what to say (purpose, audience, content structures)
• drafting: writing first and / or subsequent versions with the intention for future editing
• editing: reading through a composition for general meaning, overall structure, detailed features, and perhaps receiving comments and suggestions from others
• final version:  incorporating changes, comments, or suggestions into a final version for presentation to audience

We also performed a very informative comparison of the two productive skills, writing and speaking.  

We examined the different possible purposes of writing including academic, creative, professional, functional, and electronic.

We learned about the qualities of a well-written narrative text, including the following:

• text construction suitable to genre, topic and audience (or discourse community)
• text is cohesive both lexically and grammatically
• text is coherent (both the writer's purpose and line of thought are clear)
• text uses appropriate register (tone and vocabulary)

Finally, we explored the role of the teacher in the development of learners' writing skills.  Specifically, this will include things like raising learners' awareness of the importance of genre, topic, audience and tone, explicitly teaching how and when to use cohesive devices, and providing for a significant amount of reading with the opportunity to analyze texts, as well as the use of some texts as models or examples from which to parallel write.

Listening

When learning about listening, it was quite surprising to learn that little research has been done about its use in the language learning classroom and that it is perhaps the most neglected of the four modalities.  

We learned that there are four main purposes for listening:

• listening for gist
• listening for specific information
• listening for details
• inferential listening

As we did with the two productive skills, writing and speaking, we compared the two receptive skills, reading and listening.  This was very enlightening.

We learned that many types of factors influence the difficulty level of a listening task.  These factors can be categorized into four main groups:

• characteristics of the message itself
• characteristics of the delivery
• characteristics of the listener
• characteristics of the environment

We learned that schematic knowledge may be significantly helpful for listeners' comprehension since the language makes connections to learners' prior knowledge.

We read a stimulating debate about whether or not texts used for listening tasks should be limited to authentic or include scripted ones, as well.  It seems that both are beneficial for different reasons.

We also learned about the development of different types of listening skills through various types of activities.

Speaking   

As we began the module on speaking, we learned first about the characteristics of good speakers.  With a focus on what good speakers do, we learned that they

• conceptualize, formulate, and then articulate messages
• self-monitor and repair
• exhibit automaticity and fluency
• manage talk

We learned what discourse markers are and how they are used to send certain signals during conversations.  We learned a significant number of these.

We learned specific strategies that speakers use to manage talk, including:

• turn-taking
• discourse markers
• backchannel devices

We learned that certain types of knowledge make significant contributions to communicative competence.  Some are listed below.

• extralinguistic: topic / culture / context
• sociocultural: social values / norms of behavior (these may be both linguistic or extralinguistic)
• linguistic: grammar / vocab / genre
• discourse: organization / connection of utterances / markers
• pragmatic: language in context / speech acts / functions / co-operative principle / politeness / register

We learned about the importance of tone and register in speech and that learners need to be taught this specifically.

Finally, we learned about the promotion of fluency and accuracy in speech through error correction, explicit drills, role plays, and other task-based activities like information gap activities.

Putting it all together

The study of the four modalities has been extremely helpful.  It has included a comparison and contrast of several separate modalities.  Learning what competent learners in each of these skills can do and what knowledge they need in order to do it is essential for language teachers.  The information contained in these modules will help us create and perform more balanced, comprehensive assessments of our learners' needs.  It will also help us approach the learning in the classroom using a balanced application of the four modalities that will enable our learners to achieve a grammatical, functional, and sociocultural competence.

I believe that since language involves these four modalities, it is only logical that we use them to teach language.  Even grammar, which may seem somehow separate or overly formulaic with a reliance on drilling, can be taught in a way that incorporates the four modalities.  In fact, it is probably best taught in such a way.  When the learners will have the opportunity to use all four language modalities to explore a structure or form, it is possible that they will actually be better equipped to use it outside the classroom.

Within each module, we learned about implications for the teaching and learning process.  If we apply these to our practice, it is more likely that our students' language competence will improve.  It remains our challenge to keep this detailed, complex information at our fingertips in order to empower us to provide the most effective, efficient and beneficial learning environment for our students.

Listening and Language Learning

Listening is an essential part of language learning.  Although a lack of research exists surrounding listening and its value, an increase in recent studies about listening suggests that, as in the development of first languages, the acquisition of second languages also begins with listening.

It would be wise for language teachers to devote time in their class for focused study on listening skills.  Exposing learners to dialogues, whether authentic, scripted, authentic-based, or semi-scripted, exposes them to the target language.  This exposure provides opportunity for, as Krashen called it, comprehensible input.  Through this input, learners can expect to be exposed to discourse markers, vocabulary, and target grammar.  Exposure to this input also provides for incidental vocabulary learning wherein learners may more effectively retain certain words because of their own personal interest in the topic.  All the elements of this input makes it possible for learners to add new language.

Using more listening experiences in the classroom can also have other important effects on language learners.  First, it can provide a model.  If teachers choose listening texts well, the dialogues learners listen to and process can serve as a model for their future live interactions, either inside or outside the classroom.    This modeling helps learners feel more comfortable, more likely to take risks, and gives them a base from which to copy language chunks and use them in their own personal situations.

A second way that using listening texts in the classroom improves learning and encourages learners is that it builds confidence.  By giving the learners the opportunity to listen and respond to specific authentic situations inside the classroom, the teacher reduces fear and builds courage to try out the language in situations outside the classroom.

Finally, while working with listening texts, just like writing, reading, and speaking, teachers will have the opportunity to guide learners' attention to strategies.  By directly teaching specific strategies to improve listening skills, teachers give language learners the tools they need to continue increasing their listening skills in any situation in which they are exposed to new language.

By developing learners' language, providing models for behavior, teaching strategies, and building confidence, teachers not only help students strengthen one language modality, they also help learners become more independent.

Writing Right in the 21st Century

As technology has developed, communication has evolved.  Consider the following quote:

"Language is constantly evolving, and so we must begin to accept - and even teach – the shortened forms of communication that are used with technology. This language may contain abbreviations, symbols (emoticons) and even untraditional grammar and punctuation, which would be considered “errors” in many classrooms. We accept different forms of oral communication without penalty … we should do the same with written communication."


It's true that language is constantly evolving.  Even Harmer acknowledges this evolution when discussing how text messages and emoticons are now common ways of communicating in certain discourse communities.  I believe the author of the above quote has a very valid point for a number of reasons.

1. Membership in a Discourse Community
Probably no teachers of English as another language would disagree that if learners of English as another language want to be able to read, understand, and write for English-speaking audiences, they will need to gain membership in the discourse community on some level.  They will need to understand conventions they may read and they will need to use those conventions to communicate their own messages through text as well.

2.  Changes within the Discourse Community

Most teachers of English as another language will also agree that while there are constraints guiding the comprehension and production of most genres and sub-genres, in response to new technology, new forms (genres of their own?) have developed.  This is apparent in the micro-blogging world of Twitter:  140 characters to share important news, ideas, and some fun.

While it's possible that some teachers may disregard the importance of Twitter and other forms of technology, but in I my opinion, it would be to the detriment of the learners.  These environments now are serious places for interaction with possible business clients, professional colleagues, future employers, fellow students, and practicers of common interests.

3.  Changes within Language Conventions
Because of the change in the discourse community, it would be logical to assume that changes within our language conventions would result.  It is important for a learner who will use Twitter, LinkedIn or even text messaging to understand what lol means or what c u @ 2 might mean.  If we are seriously committed to helping our students gain competence and schematic knowledge, we will need to help them understand and use these new conventions.

Having said all of that, here is a qualifier:

At the beginning of Chapter 2, Harmer himself says "different purposes provoke different kinds of writing".  Being able to communicate a piece of news around the world a half hour before the international stories are published is one way Twitter makes its name for itself.  But that's Twitter.  There are also many other purposes for which our learners will be writing.  They will also need to comprehend and be fluent in the use of the conventions for other genres of writing.  We should not neglect one for the other.

I would hold that it is a valuable investment of time to learn the conventions of both more traditional genres and those that are developing today.  Learners should become competent in both, and know when to use which accordingly.  I'm not sure I would go as far as our original quote and say "We accept different forms of oral communication without penalty".  Rather, I would say that we should help learners understand the complexities of the genres and the conventions and decide when it is appropriate to use any of these newer conventions.  It would be hard for me to imagine any employer accepting an application that closed with the text.... c u l8r

It is this sensitivity that we can teach and for which we should hold our learners accountable.

The Role of Assessment

Assessment is an essential tool without which educators could not adequately, effectively or efficiently meet learners' needs and wants.  

Why assess?

Performing assessments will help educators determine learner placement, develop materials, curriculum, and teaching approaches. It also provides important information about what learners bring to the course, what they already have accomplished and what they want or need to know next.

When to assess?

Assessment is most useful when it occurs before, during and after courses. Having done so gives educators a baseline from which to start, an opportunity to check progress midway and change course if needed, and evaluate end results.

Who benefits from assessment?

First and foremost - the learner reaps the benefits. When educators have a good idea of what the learner has learned, wants or needs to learn and how he or she prefers to learn it, the most effective learning setting is prepared. Others also benefit from assessment including educational authorities, program funders and employers.

What information is included in an assessment?

6 main types of information may be included in assessments. Personal information, language-related information, learning-related information, teaching-related information, goal-oriented information, and miscellaneous information.  


When educators include comprehensive assessments before, during and after their courses, they are better equipped to provide learners opportunities to achieve. Educators can use the information from the assessments to drive the development of materials, to guide the direction of the curriculum, and to inform approaches used. Rather than using the same material over and over again with different learners who have different needs, wants, and objectives from the learning, educators who use assessment results effectively can ensure a "flexible, responsive curriculum."


As our the author of our text so poetically put it,
"If we know what's of interest to our students, we can package the desired with the required, and can provide a more effective and dynamic learning environment for everyone."

Discovering the CLB

Now that you have had an opportunity to peruse the CLBs, what is your beginning understanding of how this tool could be practically applied in a language learning classroom environment? As an instructor, how could you utilize it in a way that "makes sense?" Further, how could it be presented and made useful to students?  

The Canadian language benchmarks (CLBs) provide a set of standards for language learning that is comprehensive and detailed.  The benchmarks create a common foundation for educators upon which they can build their communication, their assessment, and their materials.  Because they are learner-centered, task-based, applicable to community, academic and work contexts, as well as competency-based, they are highly useful for both practitioners and learners.  

As an instructor, it seems important to remember that the benchmarks are not meant to be a test, a curriculum or a syllabus.  They also do not represent public policy on education, however, they may be affected by such policy.  What do they do?  They form a framework.  They help educators understand each other when they communicate about learners' language levels, expectations for language performance through language tasks, and provide detailed descriptions of strategies for development across the four levels of each of the three stages of language learning.  

As a language learner, I imagine it would be motivating to know exactly what skills I have, what skills I am developing and what skills lie ahead of me to be developed, especially when those skills are described in a task-based way.  I will be able to have a good understanding of where I am and what kinds of things I should be able to accomplish now and in the near future.  I would be able to help myself reach those goals in a more intentional way.  Of course, when presenting the benchmarks to students, it may be counterproductive to overwhelm them with long lists of tasks that are far beyond their level.  The can-do lists are succinct, simple, straight-forward visions of a learner's skills at particular levels and seem to be an ideal way to use the benchmarks with students.  

Observations and Games

Today I spent a long time browsing through videos on YouTube that came up for my search for "ESL".  I have observed many teachers in their classrooms before and have been observed by others, as well.  I always appreciate the privilege to watch another teacher work with learners.  I never fail to learn something new!

I performed two observations today, as required for this assignment.  I chose to watch two that were using games in the EAL classroom.  I have always LOVED using games in my classroom.  In fact, when I was teaching music, we used a set of games known as the Music Mind Games, that were based on Maria Montessori's philosophies.  For me, when planned and used appropriately, games seem to offer functional,  relevant, activities or tasks for learners that give them the opportunity to apply what they have learned.

In case you'd like to view them as well, here are the two videos I watched today.

What do you think about the use of games in the EAL classroom?

CLT and Sandra Savignon (Refresher)

I am new to the English as a second language teacher certificate program.  Right now, I am enrolled in all three of the first courses at the same time.  While this is great because it gives me the chance to do an intense, focused study, it also means I have to play a bit of catch-up.  The first activity in Understanding the Language Skills, our second course, is meant to be a refresher of material learned in the first course, Thinking About Theory.  For me, however, it is new material, and thus warrants a blog post all on its own!

Reading Sandra Savignon's Communicative Language Teaching for the Twenty-First Century has clarified and highlighted a number of important points for me.  As I address the reading questions, these points will become clear.

a.  What are the limitations of the terms “passive/active” or  “receptive/productive” as Savignon sees it?

Savignon argues that the terms passive/active or receptive/productive do not accurately capture the nature of the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.  Specifically, they do not adequately reflect the interactive, collaborative nature of meaning making in language.  Meaning making is active, participative, and interrelated.  Thus, Savignon suggests using terms like "interpretation, expression, and negotiation" when referring to communication and language learning in particular. 

b. What role did the Threshold Level play in the development of communicative competence?

The Threshold Level, originating in Europe, helped focus on the context of language systems, and functions necessitated by learner needs. Through this focus, a new direction was forged for language learning.  LSP, or languages for specific purposes, started to grow and develop as a movement.

c. What role did Savignon herself play in its development?

Savignon, through her research, helped establish the concept of "communicative competence".  This concept is basically the idea that students would authentically interact in the target language, rather than merely use the memorized dialogs from texts.  This competence requires a certain amount of risk-taking and the development of strategizing.

d. At the end of page 16, Savignon states that as language teachers, we need to have an understanding of “… language learning as both an educational and political issue”. What does she mean?

Education and politics overlap because education, even (and especially) language education, is of concern to society.  Individuals who have a stake in the selection and implementation of materials and methods for language learning include educators, learners, parents, researchers, policy makers, and community members.  This connection of mutual interest makes standardizing, designing, regulating,  and evaluating language programs complicated, and at many times, political.

e. What makes cultural awareness so important in language learning?

This question was especially intriguing for me.  I have spent many years learning Arabic.  Having lived in Egypt for 15 years, I have experienced what many learners of English as a second language experience in primarily English-speaking environments.  I believe Savignon is right on target when she writes (on page 18) that "sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction."  Through my experience of learning Arabic, there were many moments when I said the wrong thing at the wrong time - even though I said it in perfect, fluent Arabic.  When you are interacting in a language (and culture) not your own, it is so important to consider the situation from many points of view.  It is necessary to consider the individuals with whom you are speaking, their role in society, their role in your life, and the relationship you share as well as the setting of the interaction and the cultural expectations for that particular circumstance.  In fact, I believe the longer one interacts intentionally and authentically with others from other cultures, the more one must expect, circumvent, prevent, and clarify potential misunderstandings.  For me, it got easier the more familiar I became with the culture.  I suspect this might be true for others.  Again, Savignon puts this into words on page 18 when she states "Sociocultural competence therefore includes a willingness to engage in the active negotiation of meaning along with a willingness to suspend judgement and take into consideration the possibility of cultural differences in conventions or use."

f. What does Savignon mean when she says “communicative competence is always relative”?

You say 'potayto' and I say 'potahto'.  And it's not just restricted to pronunciation.  I painfully discovered this also through my experiences in Egypt.  I remember when I first started working as a supervisor for English language at the private language school.  I was responsible for editing teacher-created worksheets and writing tests.  Of course, being an American, I would use American spellings for words like color or theater.  I would also use different words or expressions with which many of the English language teachers at the school were familiar.  I very quickly found out that there is not one spelling for theater and that a flashlight can also be called a torch.  

Although I give examples of vocabulary or spelling, this extends into grammatical forms, request conventions, and many other aspects of language.  It is not possible to know all the ways all speakers of English as a first language communicate. Also, as Savignon points out, much of the English-speaking world now did not grow up speaking English, but has an English identity of their own.  I believe there is such a thing as an 'Egyptian English' in which some aspects of Arabic language and culture are detectable.  It is a beautiful thing.

g. How can you explain the different reactions that teachers have, in Savignon’s opinion, to CLT? Which of the stated reactions most reflects your own?

Savignon relates several reasons why some educators may feel frustrated with CLT.  I have been on several sides of this discussion through my experiences in Egypt.

First, in the language school in which I was supervisor, we were using an English language curriculum, written for young ESL learners that was 'communicative'.  The approach to the grammar was functional and indirect.  Egyptian teachers, who learned grammar in a very systematic approach quoting rules and practicing specific forms, were intensely confused about how to teach this way and cynical about whether or not it could succeed.  Parents were just as reluctant, if not more so.  They would sometimes demand extra worksheets or specific styles of exercises to be assigned to the students.  For our part, as an administration, we tried to apply the approach outlined in the text, while we provided very limited direct grammar instruction through worksheets.

Using the first language was also common, while not encouraged, in our classrooms.  As for the English language teachers, they would rarely do this, but teachers of other subjects - like music (for whom I was also responsible), frequently relied on this strategy.  The teachers were all very conscientious and concerned about the success of their students (and their own reputations) and wanted everyone to have a positive experience in the classroom.  However, we made every effort to raise their awareness about research findings and training to give them tools to avoid using first language especially in language classes.

A final way I experienced CLT was through my own learning of Arabic.  For the most part, I did not take formal classes or work with a tutor.  I learned almost all of the language I now possess through interactions, events, conversations, in context and with the application of various communicative strategies.  I am not saying this style is for everyone, however, it does match the principles of adult learning: that adults are self-directed, they have life experience and knowledge that contributes to their learning, they are goal-oriented, and they are relevancy-oriented and practical.  From my perspective as a language learner, CLT is a flexible way to get learners involved, interested and engaged.  

h. Summarize Savignon’s five components of language teaching by writing a sentence or two about each. Do you feel this is an accurate representation of teaching? Why or why not?

1: Language Arts:  In this component, Savignon refers to the learning of specific patterns and forms of the language.

2: Language for a Purpose:  Here, the focus is on content - not language.  For example, I like to cook, so I'm going to participate in communication about how to make a new recipe.

3.  My Language is Me: Personal English Language Use:  While I speak a language other than my first language, I do not have to abandon who I am, the conventions to which I am accustomed or my values.  My identity can still be evident in my new language use.

4.  You Be, I'll Be: Theater Arts: Role play makes it real.  I get to try out new language skills in new roles and situations in a trusting environment.

5.  Beyond the Classroom: These are opportunities to apply new language in authentic situations with other speakers of the target language.  

These five components reflect the main principles of adult learning.  Respect and autonomy are evident in #3 and #4.  Life experiences and knowledge abound in language for a purpose, my language is me, and you be, I'll be.  Goal and relevancy orientations make language for a purpose and beyond the classroom quintessential activities.  I would argue that these five components would provide a strong, effective framework for any language learning.

i. Divide your paper into two columns, and re-read “What CLT is Not” on page 27. As you re-read, put words that explain what CLT is on one side, and what CLT is not on the other.

What CLT is not:

*just about oral communication

*limited to group or pair work

*incompatible with knowledge about rules or specific language forms

What CLT is:

*a comprehensive approach including the interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning in the spoken and written word

*may include both group/ pair work and individual work

*inclusive of metalinguistic knowledge

*full of activity, tasks, and discovery

*functional

*tailored to learner's needs and contexts

*an interrelated set of competences that include language structure (grammatical competence), meaning in context (discourse competence), coping strategies that enable communication despite limitations (strategic competence), and meaning making while taking into consideration cultural conventions and potential differences (sociocultural competence)

Today's featured quote: "One demonstrates grammatical competence not by stating a rule but by using a rule in the interpretation, expression, or negotiation of meaning."  

So many of us forget that it's the application that matters!