Some Reflections on Theory

Thinking About Theory has certainly provided a comprehensive overview of theories involved in language learning and teaching.  Over these last 10 modules, we spent time learning about how adults learn, the history of language learning, communicative competence and its characteristics as well as communicative classrooms, constructing meaning, getting to know learners, learning styles,  the roles of teachers and learners, and managing the classroom.  The modules have been packed with useful, insightful, essential information about the teaching and learning of English as another language.

Many of the issues we studied throughout these modules has caught my interest.  I will try limit my reflections to just a few of them in this post.

One interesting thing I enjoyed learning more about was the history of language teaching and the significant swings back and forth that we can observe.  While this is probably expected, it was also interesting to read about and reflect on how some of the older methods are still used in one form or another within today's classroom and even within the communicative classroom.  It was especially interesting for me to discover the elements from Grammar Translation Method that can be effectively used today within a communicative classroom.

Another issue that caught my attention are the significant number of factors that may affect learning - either positively or negatively.  In particular, the seven affective factors outlined by Hedge emphasize how important it is for teachers to be aware of and sensitive to the learners' emotions because of the influence they may have on the experience of learning.

Other issues were noteworthy as well.  The discussion surrounding error correction and its techniques is essential for a teacher to spend time considering.  Furthermore, the challenge of providing rich, comprehensible input for learners that is slightly above their competence but not too overwhelming remains a difficult, but critical task.

As I reflect on these issues, I know they will become a part of my practice.  When in the classroom, I will choose activities with communicative interaction as a goal, but I will no longer strictly exclude elements of older methods, when their use may be of benefit.  I will most definitely make an effort to know my students well, and to be aware of and sensitive to their needs and wants. I will be sure to consider this from a language learning standpoint, but also taking into consideration the influence of affective factors as well as other factors that have an impact on learning.  I will intently study my error correction techniques and make adjustments as necessary, endeavoring to use the most effective technique in the most effective way at the right time.

While these are only a few ways I will make adjustments, they only represent a fraction of the changes I will make over time.  I am compelled to limit my work to a set of priorities that I will constantly review, setting new priorities as I grow and develop as an educator.

One of the areas in which I probably will need to seek out more formal development, or at least some specific informal learning goals is within the area of comprehensible input.  I would like to be able to provide the right language at the right time so as to empower learners to improve their competence.  This may have to do with my choice of materials, or scaffolding strategies, but I believe these are specific areas within which I can do work to improve my skills.

    

Reflections about Grammar and Vocabulary

We approach the end of this course and it is time to do a bit of reflection.

I have learned a great deal in the course about specific techniques for presenting and practicing grammar.  I was quite surprised to find the rich variety of ways to present and practice grammar that we studied throughout the modules.  I was intrigued as I attempted to use these techniques in a lesson plan or two of my own and discovered that I enjoyed doing so.  I also especially enjoyed the modules on vocabulary, and strategies for teaching it in a comprehensive, contextual way that will better provide for deep learning.  

Having said that, I did struggle at several points throughout the course.  The work was demanding and intense.  In some modules, I felt I was unprepared for the material and needed to do some background work before I could actually comprehend, analyze and synthesize my own thoughts.  While this took some extra time, it definitely has paid off.  I feel more confident now even though I understand I still lack experience, especially with grammar.  However, I know I now have a firm basis of knowledge and skill that I will be able to apply to future coursework and my work with students in the classroom.  

I would like to throw in an extra word of praise for course design and implementation.  I do feel that the course provided a step-by-step approach, directed me to needed resources, and had a logical sequence that  led to the achievement of its goals.  I also greatly appreciate the guidance of our teacher, Terena, and the contributions of my colleagues through discussions and comments.  All these elements combined to create a rich environment in which to grow.  Thanks, all!

Learning Objectives in Planning Instruction

Learning objectives draw a framework for expectations, provide a guide for action, and even a kind of tool for assessment of progress.

Expectations: Having considered learner's needs, wants, and the particular situation, a well-written objective clearly defines the expected outcomes for learners once they have completed a certain activity or lesson.   Because it is specific and measurable, it is a clear way of establishing what results learners can expect to achieve.

Guide for action:  At the same time, the objective also is achievable, relevant, and timely.  When teachers and / or learners create their learning objectives, they tailor their objective to be sure it can actually be accomplished, that it is applicable to the learners and the context, and that it can be done within the given time frame.  This tailoring ensures that the objective provides a path to success.  The teacher and learners then set out on the path, framed in the objective, keeping their eye on the objective and using it as a reference point.  Thus, the objective focuses the teacher and learner on what needs to be done by consistently reminding them of their goal.

Assessment of progress:  As the learners and teachers continue down the path, with their eye on the objective, they will constantly question how far along they are in the accomplishment of their goal.  If they find themselves off track for some reason, the objective becomes a way to regroup and move forward  in the right direction again.  It could be that the learners and / or teacher will realize that the original objective wasn't really achievable or timely and will require adjustment.  Or it could be that such a review of the objective will reveal that it has actually been achieved and it's time to write a new one!

Objectives, when written well, are essential in the planning, implementation and evaluation of instruction.

Reflection on the Communicative Classroom

This module helped crystallize what communicative learning is and how it translates into lessons in the classroom.  Some of the highlights I'd like to take away from this module include the following:

Criteria for a lesson based on communicative method principles:

a.  Language should be a means to an end; ie. the focus in lessons should be on meaning, not form.
b. Language in the classroom, as far as possible, should be real.
c. Content should be determined to a significant degree by the learners, so that they are forced to wrestle with the meaning-making process.
d. There must be negotiation of meaning between learners, so that they learn to interpret and clarify communications before responding.
e. Learners should be presented with language that is not predictable; ie. there should be an information, reasoning or opinion gap.

What does this mean for teachers and learners?

• Use of authentic language: Since the main goal for language learning in the communicative method is communicative competence, it follows that learners must not only be exposed to a rich variety of authentic language, but also must develop the skill of using it both fluently and accurately.
• Focus on the use of English for specific purposes: Teachers and learners are aware that language needs vary according to the demands of the situation.  Thus, it is expected that the content of content of specified courses will target these special demands.  For example, the needs of learners who are preparing to study medicine in an English-speaking university may be quite different from those who are studying English because they are planning to settle in an English-speaking country.
• Prevalence of information-gap activities:  One way that learners will use as much language as possible in situations where they are focused on negotiating meaning is through the use of information-gap activities.  These activities are intentionally designed to so as to require learners to communicate with one another in order to complete a certain task or get certain information.  The activity provides one learner with certain information and his or her partner with other information.  In order to complete the activity, however, they must have both parts of the information and therefore, must ask for, share, and clarify information.  These types of activities are guaranteed to get learners involved and using the target language.
•  Use of task-based learning: Task -based learning involves a challenge of interest to the learners.  The teacher presents a question or task for the learners and with some limited support, they must work together to plan, perform, and report on the task.  Throughout, the teacher may help with some language items, but the bulk of the language focus activities (analysis or practice) are implemented at the end of the lesson.  This technique has both benefits and disadvantages.  One of the main benefits is that the learners use their full arsenal of language skills and knowledge throughout the task, making the interaction more like real-life communication.  On the other hand, some have expressed concern that there is not enough focus on form.  

As we learn to implement each of these tools in an effort to create a more effective communicative language classroom, we must be careful to:

• maintain a good balance between focus on form and focus on meaning
• BOTH!
• all communication should always have a skills developmental purpose 
• it's not the point to have learners talking all the time - there must be purpose 
• authentic language should be used, but may need to be adapted so as not to overwhelm learners
• the language tasks should include some unfamiliar language, but not too much, otherwise some preliminary work will be required in order for them to be able to perform the task
• consider classroom management issues specific to communicative language classrooms
• pair / group work
• cultural assumptions about group work
• role of the teacher as a 'guide on the side'

A Pause for Reflection

Now is the the perfect time to take a time-out and reflect.  We have just completed four modules of in-depth study of the four modalities of language (reading, writing, listening, and speaking).  During our exploration of each the modalities, we have been exposed to a significant amount of new information, ideas, and terminology.  A review at this point will most definitely be helpful as we synthesize and apply our new learning.

As we move forward through this course and the coming ones in this certificate program (and then into the classroom!), these four modules and the information they contain about the four language modalities will be a core from which we can work.  I thought I would take this reflection post to just touch on some highlights from each module:

Reading

We learned that there are 6 kinds of knowledge that can be used to make sense of text:

• syntactic knowledge
• morphological knowledge
• general world knowledge
• sociocultural knowledge
• topic knowledge
• genre knowledge

We also learned that it is important to help learners use schematic knowledge in pre-reading activities where they can make predictions.

Another thing we learned about reading was that specific language knowledge can be used during a reading activity to help learners decode the text.  This can include text cohesion, deletion, discourse signals, and vocabulary.

Finally, we learned how teachers can apply certain strategies to help learners decode different types of text.  They can assign extensive reading, choose text in such a way as to capitalize on learner's existing knowledge, and engage learners in analytical activities that draw attention to specific features of the text.

Writing

As for writing, we learned about the different stages of writing and the purposes of each.

• planning:  deciding what to say (purpose, audience, content structures)
• drafting: writing first and / or subsequent versions with the intention for future editing
• editing: reading through a composition for general meaning, overall structure, detailed features, and perhaps receiving comments and suggestions from others
• final version:  incorporating changes, comments, or suggestions into a final version for presentation to audience

We also performed a very informative comparison of the two productive skills, writing and speaking.  

We examined the different possible purposes of writing including academic, creative, professional, functional, and electronic.

We learned about the qualities of a well-written narrative text, including the following:

• text construction suitable to genre, topic and audience (or discourse community)
• text is cohesive both lexically and grammatically
• text is coherent (both the writer's purpose and line of thought are clear)
• text uses appropriate register (tone and vocabulary)

Finally, we explored the role of the teacher in the development of learners' writing skills.  Specifically, this will include things like raising learners' awareness of the importance of genre, topic, audience and tone, explicitly teaching how and when to use cohesive devices, and providing for a significant amount of reading with the opportunity to analyze texts, as well as the use of some texts as models or examples from which to parallel write.

Listening

When learning about listening, it was quite surprising to learn that little research has been done about its use in the language learning classroom and that it is perhaps the most neglected of the four modalities.  

We learned that there are four main purposes for listening:

• listening for gist
• listening for specific information
• listening for details
• inferential listening

As we did with the two productive skills, writing and speaking, we compared the two receptive skills, reading and listening.  This was very enlightening.

We learned that many types of factors influence the difficulty level of a listening task.  These factors can be categorized into four main groups:

• characteristics of the message itself
• characteristics of the delivery
• characteristics of the listener
• characteristics of the environment

We learned that schematic knowledge may be significantly helpful for listeners' comprehension since the language makes connections to learners' prior knowledge.

We read a stimulating debate about whether or not texts used for listening tasks should be limited to authentic or include scripted ones, as well.  It seems that both are beneficial for different reasons.

We also learned about the development of different types of listening skills through various types of activities.

Speaking   

As we began the module on speaking, we learned first about the characteristics of good speakers.  With a focus on what good speakers do, we learned that they

• conceptualize, formulate, and then articulate messages
• self-monitor and repair
• exhibit automaticity and fluency
• manage talk

We learned what discourse markers are and how they are used to send certain signals during conversations.  We learned a significant number of these.

We learned specific strategies that speakers use to manage talk, including:

• turn-taking
• discourse markers
• backchannel devices

We learned that certain types of knowledge make significant contributions to communicative competence.  Some are listed below.

• extralinguistic: topic / culture / context
• sociocultural: social values / norms of behavior (these may be both linguistic or extralinguistic)
• linguistic: grammar / vocab / genre
• discourse: organization / connection of utterances / markers
• pragmatic: language in context / speech acts / functions / co-operative principle / politeness / register

We learned about the importance of tone and register in speech and that learners need to be taught this specifically.

Finally, we learned about the promotion of fluency and accuracy in speech through error correction, explicit drills, role plays, and other task-based activities like information gap activities.

Putting it all together

The study of the four modalities has been extremely helpful.  It has included a comparison and contrast of several separate modalities.  Learning what competent learners in each of these skills can do and what knowledge they need in order to do it is essential for language teachers.  The information contained in these modules will help us create and perform more balanced, comprehensive assessments of our learners' needs.  It will also help us approach the learning in the classroom using a balanced application of the four modalities that will enable our learners to achieve a grammatical, functional, and sociocultural competence.

I believe that since language involves these four modalities, it is only logical that we use them to teach language.  Even grammar, which may seem somehow separate or overly formulaic with a reliance on drilling, can be taught in a way that incorporates the four modalities.  In fact, it is probably best taught in such a way.  When the learners will have the opportunity to use all four language modalities to explore a structure or form, it is possible that they will actually be better equipped to use it outside the classroom.

Within each module, we learned about implications for the teaching and learning process.  If we apply these to our practice, it is more likely that our students' language competence will improve.  It remains our challenge to keep this detailed, complex information at our fingertips in order to empower us to provide the most effective, efficient and beneficial learning environment for our students.

Listening and Language Learning

Listening is an essential part of language learning.  Although a lack of research exists surrounding listening and its value, an increase in recent studies about listening suggests that, as in the development of first languages, the acquisition of second languages also begins with listening.

It would be wise for language teachers to devote time in their class for focused study on listening skills.  Exposing learners to dialogues, whether authentic, scripted, authentic-based, or semi-scripted, exposes them to the target language.  This exposure provides opportunity for, as Krashen called it, comprehensible input.  Through this input, learners can expect to be exposed to discourse markers, vocabulary, and target grammar.  Exposure to this input also provides for incidental vocabulary learning wherein learners may more effectively retain certain words because of their own personal interest in the topic.  All the elements of this input makes it possible for learners to add new language.

Using more listening experiences in the classroom can also have other important effects on language learners.  First, it can provide a model.  If teachers choose listening texts well, the dialogues learners listen to and process can serve as a model for their future live interactions, either inside or outside the classroom.    This modeling helps learners feel more comfortable, more likely to take risks, and gives them a base from which to copy language chunks and use them in their own personal situations.

A second way that using listening texts in the classroom improves learning and encourages learners is that it builds confidence.  By giving the learners the opportunity to listen and respond to specific authentic situations inside the classroom, the teacher reduces fear and builds courage to try out the language in situations outside the classroom.

Finally, while working with listening texts, just like writing, reading, and speaking, teachers will have the opportunity to guide learners' attention to strategies.  By directly teaching specific strategies to improve listening skills, teachers give language learners the tools they need to continue increasing their listening skills in any situation in which they are exposed to new language.

By developing learners' language, providing models for behavior, teaching strategies, and building confidence, teachers not only help students strengthen one language modality, they also help learners become more independent.

Learning Styles and Strategies: To Assess or Not to Assess?

In Module 7 of our Theory course, we have been learning about learning styles and learning strategies.

So, what is a learning style?
   A learning style is a preference or a tendency to use a particular learning pattern (or method) when learning something.

And how does one distinguish a learning style from a learning strategy?
    A learning strategy is a series of steps or behaviors employed in a specific situation to assist in the acquisition, storage, retention, recall and use of new information.

Is it valuable for students to be assessed for learning style and strategy?  Why or why not?

Yes, because....

• Students will become more aware of their own preferences and those preferences ascribed to by others, which will in turn help enable them to be better equipped as learners.  They can become more effective and efficient by experimenting with different strategies or even expand their preferences to include others and thus improve their capability to learn in different situations.
• When students' learning preferences and styles are assessed, teachers can more effectively attempt to plan learning activities that meet students' preferences and needs in a more efficient way.

But, no, because....

• Many instruments used to assess learning styles in particular have not been found to be reliable or accurate.  Great care must be taken when using them.
• Much more research about the different learning style models needs to be implemented in order to establish a more informed theory surrounding the models.
• Sometimes the styles are misused as labels and can affect learners' impressions of themselves or teachers' impressions of them.  In practice, the styles cannot yet be viewed to be entirely stable, or restrictive.  There has been some evidence that the styles are flexible and can expand and change over time and with new and varied experience. 

Although I have written more cons than pros for assessment, I do believe that a heightened awareness among learners about how they learn is a very valuable tool.  If the assessments are used with caution and explained in detail so as not to be misunderstood or misused, I believe their use can have significant positive impact on a learner's capability to improve their learning skills.